PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY OF BUDDHISM REVIEWED
Selections from Buddhist philosophy that are useful to high school and tertiary students, and for young adults, and selections from Buddhist psychology covering the construction and working of the mind are more suitable for tertiary students and young adults. Ask for a counsellor to guide you.
DHAMMA PRACTICE TRAINING ACADEMY (DPTA)
DPTA LESSON BANK 4
LESSONS IN BUDDHIST PSYCHOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY
EREVISED ON 27 NOV. 2022
Number of lessons at present is 47
Number of pages is 58
It might not have a lesson written for every possible topic. However, requests for new lessons will be considered. The aim is to have enough lessons catering to all ages of learners and practitioners of meditation.
When a lesson is not ready, it is suggested that textbooks be used.
If you need the help of a Buddhist Counsellor, please send an email to QSA via This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
Alternatively, please get information from the internet:
www.buddhanet.net
www.accesstoinsight.org
www.tripitaka.lk
Wikipedia
If you are looking for a lesson on a particular subject, please initially refer to the alphabetical index to lessons.
LIST OF LESSONS IN THE LESSON BANK ON PSYCHOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY
LESSON BRIEF LESSON DESCRIPTION EDITING RECORD
NUMBER LANGUAGE CONTENTS
GOTO PAGE
5000 4 Buddhist philosophy KS KS
5001 7 Central theme of Buddhist philosophy KS
5002 8 Four noble truths KS
5003 9 The noble eight-fold path KS
5004 10 Causation theory KS
5005 11 Continuous change
5006 11 The three signata of existence
5007 15 No-self theory
5008 16 The idea of the individual
5009 13 Death
5010 14 The cycle of births and deaths
5011 to 5499 held in reserve
5500 17 Buddhist psychology
5501 17 The concept of citta
5502 18 The concept of cetasikas
5503 19 The universal cetasikas
5504 to 5510 held in reserve
5511 20 Universal cetasika-contact
5512 21 Universal cetasika-sensations
5513 22 Universal cetasika-perceptions
5514 23 Universal cetasika-volition
5515 24 Universal cetasika-one-pointedness
5516 25 Universal cetasika-psychic life
5517 25 Universal cetasika-attention
5518 27 Common 13 cetasikas
5519 28 Six optional common dormant cetasikas
5520 29 Six optional Common dormant cetasikas-initial application
5521 30 Six optional Common dormant cetasikas-sustained application
5522 31 Six optional Common dormant cetasikas-decision
5523 31 Six optional Common dormant cetasikas-effort
5524 32 Six optional Common dormant cetasikas-joy
5525 34 Six optional Common dormant cetasikas-intent to act
5526 to 5599 held vacant
5600 36 The fourteen unwholesome mental states in Abhidhamma
5601 38 Fourteen unwholesome cetasikas- 1 Delusion
5602 40 Fourteen unwholesome cetasikas- 2 Shamelessness
5603 43 Fourteen unwholesome cetasikas- 3 Fearlessness
5604 44 Fourteen unwholesome cetasikas- 4 Restlessness
5605 48 Fourteen unwholesome cetasikas- 5 Greed
5606 49 Fourteen unwholesome cetasikas- 6 Misbelief
5607 50 Fourteen unwholesome cetasikas- 7 Conceit
5608 53 Fourteen unwholesome cetasikas- 8 Hatred
5609 53 Fourteen unwholesome cetasikas- 9 Jealousy
5610 54 Fourteen unwholesome cetasikas- 10 Avarice
5611 55 Fourteen unwholesome cetasikas- 11 Worry
5612 56 Fourteen unwholesome cetasikas- 12 Sloth
5613 57 Fourteen unwholesome cetasikas- 13 Torpor
5614 58 Fourteen unwholesome cetasikas- 14 Doubt
NAMES AND INITIALS OF EDITORS
Gunendra Sellahewa GS
Kumari Sellahewa KS
Janani Welgama JW
5615 to 5699 are held in reserve
END OF LESSON BANK IN PSYCHOLOGY
The five sections in the DPTA lessons bank are:
1 Discourses of the Buddha
2 Meditation
3 Buddha Dhamma
4 Psychology and philosophy
5 Dhamma Practice
The numbers in the LEFT column are lesson numbers
LESSON B ROAD TOPIC OF LESSON
NUMBER
5000 Buddhist Philosophy and psychology
The first sermon of the Buddha, namely, the discourse on Turning of the Dhamma Wheel (Dhamma Cakka Pavattana Sutta) contains a summary of Buddhist philosophy and psychology. It consists of three major sections.
The first is the middle way that explains abandoning extremes of certain experiences. The second is the enunciation of the Four Noble Truths, the crux of the philosophy. The third is the elaboration of the fourth truth, the Noble Eight-Fold Path including the psychology of behaviour and mental development.
Recluses of the day believed that the total elimination of all sensual experiences was the way to elimination of suffering. Opponents of this belief adopted the opposite principle that suffering is eliminated by enjoyment of sensual experiences.
The Buddha suggested that both these views at the extreme are harmful, and they do not bring about an end to suffering. It is interesting that the people had this view that there was suffering in life even before the Buddha.
This new attitude was also called the middle way as it implied the abandonment of extremes in general.
Note that many teachers of the day, including the first two teachers of ascetic Siddhartha, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Rama Putta, paid great attention to the need to eliminate craving for sensual enjoyments. They however were reborn in Brahma worlds and failed to end their cycles of births and deaths (Samsaric Journeys).
Some surmise that the four truths were known at the time in general terms but not specifically as the Buddha taught.
The four truths are:
That there is suffering
That there is a reason for that suffering
That there is an end to suffering
That there is a way to end suffering
The reason for suffering is craving.
The end to suffering is enlightenment (Nibbana).
The way to that end is the Noble Eight-Fold Path.
Craving according to the Buddha was not merely craving for sensual experience, but also included craving for becoming (a new person or being). Becoming also included not-becoming as the opposite. The early thinkers did not see these latter types of craving as relevant, but the Buddha did. In Pali the three types of craving are Kama Tanha, Bhava Tanha and Vibhava Tanha. All three types need to be eliminated to end Samsara.
The originality of the Buddha’s teaching was partly in the definition of craving, and even more in the specification of the eight lanes of the Path using the term ‘right’. The eight lanes are:
1 Right View
2 Right Thought
3 Right Speech
4 Right Action
5 Right Livelihood
6 Right Effort
7 Right Mindfulness
8 Right Stillness (concentration)
The adjective right was the key word. It was understood as pointing towards emancipation.
The first truth Dukkha needs to be truly seen, the second truth craving must be eliminated, the third truth Nibbana needs to be realised, and the fourth truth the Path must be followed.
The entire Dhamma is intended to help a practitioner to understand and practise what is necessary to fulfil the requirements of the path.
Academically, gaining knowledge of Dhamma is useful to recognise where one stands in relation to Dhamma practice.; paying too much attention to details of Dhamma is an extreme step that is not helpful.
The most important thing is to continuously practise what you learn. It helps to understand the Dhamma in a real sense.
How this is done is provided in the rest of the lessons in the entire lesson bank. Help should be sought from a Buddhist Counsellor (a noble friend) to clarify the value of current practice, so that time and energy are not wasted.
Teaching techniques from techniques bank suggested:
206 Participating in Dhamma discussions
Writer: Rahubadde Sarath-Chandra
Content Editor: Kumari Sellahewa
Language Editor: Kumari Sellahewa
Teaching Techniques identified by:
Indexer and Compiler: RSC
5001 CENTRAL THEME OF BUDDHIST PHLOSOPHY
The central theme of Buddhist philosophy is the basic truth that life is suffering, experienced now or about to be experienced. If someone feels that he is not experiencing suffering and that he is not going into suffering in the future, then Buddhist philosophy has only one thing to offer. That is a fore-warning that he might be mistaken in his belief.
This simple fact is applicable whether you are rich or poor, humble, or powerful, healthy, or not healthy or in whatever circumstances. Buddhism goes on to say that even in places of happiness such as the celestial worlds, there is suffering now or in the future.
The entire philosophy of Buddhism is connected to this central theme and all its teachings aim at either the alleviation of suffering or the total eradication of suffering.
In Buddhist philosophy there is no initial postulate or fundamental assumption. It begins with common experience. Do you run into situations that are difficult to bear? Can anyone say no, not at all?
We start with a fact within our experience and then proceed.
Critics have raised the question whether the emphasis placed on the existence of suffering implies the requirement of a continued sadness. Buddhism does not promote sadness. Suffering needs to be understood so that it can be ended. Sadness is associated with hatred. Hatred must be eliminated to end suffering. Those who understood suffering were the happiest people.
Teaching techniques from techniques bank suggested:
206 Participating in Dhamma discussions
Writer: Rahubadde Sarath-Chandra
Content Editor:
Language Editor:
Teaching Techniques identified by:
Indexer and Compiler: RSC
5002 THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS
The fundamental idea that there is suffering is the first of the four noble truths. Briefly stated these are as follows:
That there is inherent suffering in existence
That there is a cause for that suffering
That there is a possible end for such suffering
That there is a way that leads to the cessation of suffering
The cause for suffering is craving.
The elimination of craving results in an end to suffering.
Anyone following the noble eight-fold path may reach that end.
Teaching techniques from techniques bank suggested:
206 Participating in Dhamma discussions
Writer: Rahubadde Sarath-Chandra
Content Editor:
Language Editor: Dr. Kumari Sellahewa
Teaching Techniques identified by:
Indexer and Compiler: RSC
5003 THE NOBLE EIGHT-FOLD PATH
The path to be followed to reach the end of suffering is called the noble eight-fold path. These are eight mental states that need to be developed, both separately, and together. The eight are:
Right View
Right Though
Right Speech
Right Action
Right Livelihood
Right Effort
Right Mindfulness
Right Concentration
The term right needs to be understood gradually although it suggests a meaning to any reasonable person. Ultimately right here indicates that the mental state leads to enlightenment or the end of suffering. The meaning is mostly empirical.
The meanings of the eight terms need to be explored. Livelihood is really a combination of thought, speech and action that is used to earn a living. It applies to everybody including children, monks, nuns, and the elderly.
Effort here implies mental effort. Mindfulness is the ability to move the mind with the action and to continue following the action. Concentration here does not imply some strenuous action but rather allowing the mind to become still.
These are discussed in depth in the relevant lessons under the main topic Dhamma.
The noble eight-fold path is sometimes called the middle way.
Teaching techniques from techniques bank suggested:
206 Participating in Dhamma discussions
Writer: Rahubadde Sarath-Chandra
Content Editor:
Language Editor: Dr. Kumari Sellahewa
Teaching Techniques identified by:
Indexer and Compiler: RSC
5004 CAUSATION THEORY
Causation is implied in the second noble truth. Causation means a lot more in Buddhist philosophy. Events keep happening because of causes. The results become causes for further events. The world goes on due to this repeated impact of a multitude of causes and resulting events.
It is possible to work out what causes produced a particular event. If this is correct there is no need to import a doer behind events that occur. There is no creator as such.
In this way the Buddha has explained the evolution of the world after a natural catastrophe. Things change in response to conditions. Conditions change and the results of those conditions also change accordingly. One such change is evolution.
The recent experience of the Covid pandemic showed many changes in conditions that caused ever changing consequences.
This is not just theory enunciated by the Buddha. It is an occurrence noticed in our day-to-day experience. It is within the power of a person to change conditions under his control. When you get sick you can take medicine. That changes prevailing conditions. That is likely to result in curing the illness. You can observe this occurring all the time. Change a condition, and you change the result. Obviously, there are limits to these actions. Some conditions may be hard for you to change.
Climate change, the conditions that cause it, the results we see are a well-known illustration of causation. What conditions are within our power to change is something we need to understand.
The chain of causation is discussed in a later lesson. It is really a linear expression of the causation theory, made simpler for understanding.
When things go wrong, we have a tendency to look for someone to blame. This leads to all kinds of problems. It is sensible to assume that it might be a result of a past action of mine. That removes the importation of ill-will into occurrences.
Teaching techniques from techniques bank suggested:
407 Resarching on a topic and presenting a report
Writer: Rahubadde Sarath-Chandra
Content Editor:
Language Editor:
Teaching Techniques identified by:
Indexer and Compiler: RSC
5005 CONTINUOUS CHANGE
This leads us to the natural phenomenon of change. Nothing seems to stay as it is. Things keep changing. Some changes occur very quickly. Others may take longer, even centuries.
Buddhist philosophy asserts that everything belonging to this universe, changes. That includes both material things and mental things. For example, our thoughts change from moment to moment.
This is called impermanence (Anicca) in Buddhism. The body keeps changing, becoming sick sometimes, ageing, deteriorating and eventually ceasing to function, or dying. You might not see this happening every second, but you do observe this over periods.
It is the same with the mind. It might be efficient at a young age but as people grow old the mind starts showing signs of weakness, getting illnesses of old age, unable to perform ordinary activities. Medicine tries to delay the process, but that is not always effective.
Impermanence is one of the three signs of existence (anicca. dukkha and anatta). Understanding this is by itself is well recommended. The other two signs are the concepts of no-self and suffering. These will be discussed later. In a way, all three seems to be connected to the idea of change.
Teaching techniques from techniques bank suggested:
407 Researching a topic and presenting a report
Writer: Rahubadde Sarath-Chandra
Content Editor:
Language Editor:
Teaching Techniques identified by:
Indexer and Compiler: RSC
5006 THE THREE SIGNATA OF EXISTENCE
As mentioned before the three signs of all things that exist in the universe are, impermanence, suffering and no-self.
Our idea of suffering is empirical. Are there situations that are not easy to bear? That is where suffering is. One might not observe this as a continuous occurrence. It may seem to be intermittent. Yet, it is there. If a person thinks that he has no suffering, it is probably a delusion. If you fail to see an elephant in front of you, we can only wish you good luck.
Buddhist philosophy asserts that even in moments of pleasant experience, suffering now or later is an inherent feature. Some have the penetrative wisdom to see this with little effort, but others are not that sharp, right now.
Suffering does not mean that all experiences are unbearable. The important aspect is that there is some sort of dissatisfaction. We try to cover that dissatisfaction with sweet words. From the psychological point of view that might be useful. There is no need to lament about it. It is necessary to understand it.
One can argue that all three signs mean the same thing. There is no harm do so in a philosophical sense. The analysis, however, makes it easier to deal with them.
If everything is in a state of flux, there is nothing permanent to hold on to. Whatever that seems nice, also is subject to change. Each of the three ideas gain relevance with the passage of time.
Teaching techniques from techniques bank suggested:
407 Researching a topic and presenting a report
Writer: Rahubadde Sarath-Chandra
Content Editor:
Language Editor:
Teaching Techniques identified by:
Indexer and Compiler: RSC
5007 NO-SELF (ANATTA) THEORY
The idea of the absence of a self requires deeper reflection. This concept can be difficult to grasp, and even then, it is safer to assume that the understanding is superficial. It is when one becomes enlightened, that one fully comprehends this idea. We are far from this level of penetrative wisdom.
Practically speaking, it does not make sense for one to assume that there is no self within them. Because, undeniably, there is an observable person functioning within society. However, if you extend the belief of self, and develop a theory that there is a substantial, lasting, identifiable entity within you (a soul), the belief becomes strong, not easy to validate, and pleasant to grasp.
The problem is in clinging on to a strong view that you have a soul, an ever-lasting entity, derived from external power, not subject to change, and entirely different from other “souls”.
If you do not have such a strong view or if such a view is held only tentatively, and mildly, that would seem to be natural.
It is therefore advised that we watch how much pride we have, how exclusive we feel, how superior we feel compared to others, and how flexible we are in accepting other people’s ideas.
A strong view of our “soul” becomes a barrier to spiritual progress. According to the scriptures, such a view eradicates the possibility of attaining the first stage of enlightenment, stream-winner (sotapatti).
When you develop insight using meditative techniques, the sign of continuous change is vividly seen. This indirectly reduces the intensity of the self-view or the identity view, while continuing to live normally in society.
While they had attained the stream-winning stage, Anathapindika, and Visakha continued as a financier, and a businessperson respectively. Similarly, there may be people in society who have attained the first stage of enlightenment. We just may not recognise them. If one has attained this stage, claiming such attainment is not the practice. Such claiming is not recommended.
Teaching techniques from techniques bank suggested:
407 Researching a topic and presenting a report
409 Identifying applicable cases in one’s own experience
Illustrations:
- Feelings of superiority and being exclusive
- Ability to accept ideas of other people
- Excessive pride
- The tendency to compare with others
- Tendency to talk about yourself a little too much
Writer: Rahubadde Sarath-Chandra
Content Editor: Janani Welgama
Language Editor: Janani Welgama
Teaching Techniques identified by: RSC
Indexer and Compiler: RSC
3008 THE IDEA OF THE INDIVIDUAL
We think of ourselves as individuals. It is practical do so. Who in fact is the individual? Is the individual entirely separate from the group?
The individual is a combination of a physical body with a mind. Neither part is permanent, and both are changing all the time. Though we treat the two parts as separate, they are inter-dependent. What happens in one part may become the cause for an event that happens in the other part.
For example, a bad mood might result in loss of appetite. Eating too much may cause drowsiness in the mind. An illness that affects the body may also affect the mind. The two parts work closely together.
The body is constantly changing, but we notice changes at certain intervals. The immediate change may be too small to notice now. Small quantitative changes may produce visible qualitative changes. Ultimately, the body consists of atoms and molecules and each one of them is in a state of flux. So, we need to treat the body less as a thing but more as a process.
Buddhist psychology shows us that the mind is very similar. It is not a thing but rather a process.
Hence the individual is in fact a process both physically and mentally.
The physical process is usually understood as a combined process based on so many parts, as the thirty two parts of the body.
The mental process is analysed into four groups or aggregates as follows:
Feelings or sensations
Signs or perceptions
Mental formations
Consciousness
With materiality, these five are called the aggregates. That is one way analysing the individual. These five aggregates are considered elsewhere in detail.
Life depends on a continuation of the mental aspects in conjunction with the physical body. When the physical body is unable to function, the mental components leave the body, causing death.
Strictly speaking death occurs every moment, but it is not recognised as such by society.
Teaching techniques from techniques bank suggested:
407 Researching a topic and presenting a report
409 Listing cases that support this theory or contradict it
Illustrations:
Any things considered yourself other than the body and the mind
Some assert that individuals are created by an external agency
Is this fantasy, conjecture, feasible, unhelpful etc?
Writer: Rahubadde Sarath-Chandra
Content Editor:
Language Editor:
Teaching Techniques identified by:
Indexer and Compiler: RSC
5009 DEATH
As mentioned before, the physical and mental processes which together comprise life, arise and cease in parts all the time. Hence from that point of view life begins and ends every moment. We do not notice as we are accustomed to the process.
We notice only when the mental aspects get separated from the physical aspects. Then we recognise the event as death; so, does government.
No one is able to predict the time of death, place of death or manner of death. The only thing we know is that death will certainly occur sometime. It is a natural event.
There is no need to lament but it is something to be understood. Lack of understanding brings sorrow.
It is useful to see the passing away of a person, without becoming emotional.
It is good to reflect on death and gradually get used to it as a natural occurrence. It is useful to prepare for death rather than panic about what needs to be done in the short time left. The world will go on even after I die. I need not bother about what happens to my children, relatives, friends, and organisations I loved. Be less attached. Never worry about enmities. They are now meaningless. Learn to die peacefully when it happens.
Old and sick bodies are best abandoned. At least we can expect a new body in a new place. Thinking this way, we can die without worries.
Teaching techniques from techniques bank suggested:
407 Researching a topic and presenting a report
Writer: Rahubadde Sarath-Chandra
Content Editor:
Language Editor:
Teaching Techniques identified by:
Indexer and Compiler: RSC
5010 THE CYCLE OF BIRTHS AND DEATHS
As discussed before, it is the body that dies. The mind abandons the dead body. According to the last state of mind, the mind seeks another body somewhere. The influencing factor is what is called kamma discussed later. One’s kamma is a natural force or energy, generated by one’s own past thoughts, words, and deeds. Good kamma produces good results in this birth or in a future birth. Similarly, bad kamma produces poor results.
There is no one keeping records and doing it. It is a natural occurrence. If you are unhappy about what you are or what you have now, generally you can attribute it to kamma. Kamma is not fate. You can to good kamma now and change course. By getting enlightened one can cut short the long journey in the cycle of births and deaths, called smasara.
Most people like be re-born in good places like the celestial world or the human world but for that one needs good kamma.
Buddha and arahants have finished the cycle; those who have attained various stages of enlightenment will finish the cycle next birth in a few births.
Teaching techniques from techniques bank suggested:
407 Researching a topic and presenting a report
Writer: Rahubadde Sarath-Chandra
Content Editor:
Language Editor:
Teaching Techniques identified by:
Indexer and Compiler: RSC
These topics are under consideration as part of Buddhist philosophy:
THE WORLD ORDER
KAMMA
DEPENDENT ORIGINATION
ENIGHTENMENT
5010 to 5499 are held in reserve
5500 BUDDHIST PSYCHOLOGY
Buddhist psychology deals with the nature of the mind and the processes working in relation to the mind. The discourses of the Buddha deal with these matters in one way. The third group of teachings called the Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with these matters in somewhat different way. Monks and nuns, scholars in Buddhism tend to discuss this apparent divergence as a major concern. However, the writer discerns that there is no such great divergence. The opinion of the writer is that these two are two methods of teaching.
The method used in the discourses is teaching and learning using empirical methods, mainly based on the experience of human beings.
The method used in Abhidhamma is based on codification and definitions of terms, classifications, analysis, and synthesis of ideas, all these based on fundamental assumptions.
An illustration of this explanation is found in the great discourse on the establishment of mindfulness. The four chapters in the discourse deal with the body, sensations, the mind, and mental constructs. In discussing contemplation of the mind, the mind and mental states or features of the mind, are considered together as the mind. In Abhidhamma, the mind and mental states are considered strictly as two fundamental entities. This is an assumption made to understand the two aspects clearly.
Although citta and cetasikas (mind and mental states) are mentioned in the Abhidhamma as two different absolutes, an examination of the details shows that these are not entirely separate. Citta also is defined in terms of some cetasikas. The demarcation is not a fact but a method of understanding.
Another relevant issue is the English translations of the terms citta and cetasikas. Citta is usually translated as consciousness. The term consciousness is a nursing and medical term. It is connected to other words like sub-conscious, unconscious, semi-conscious and so on. The true meaning of citta seems to be associated with knowing. A term like cognos, or mind-core would have connoted the idea of knowing. This needs to be considered by future researchers and scholars.
The essential part of citta is this knowing through a combination od sense activity and the mind at the same time.
Cetasika, by definition, is a feature or an aspect of the mind like anger.
Hence, this argument that the Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka take different views is not correct. These are two different methods of teaching.
Until the question of terms is resolved, the writer suggests that the Pali terms citta and cetasika be treated as English words.
Teaching techniques from techniques bank suggested:
208 Prior reading script and speaking about the main points
Writer: Rahubadde Sarath-Chandra
Content Editor:
Language Editor:
Teaching Techniques identified by: RSC
5501 THE CONCEPT OF CITTA
There are numerous physical objects around us that are contactable. In addition, there are memories that reside in the mind itself. These are all contactable in the sense of being visible, audible, smellable, tastable, or tangible and memories.
In each experience these function as the instruments of contact: the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind or rather what can be called the mind door, respectively.
When contact is made, if the mind is ready to receive the information, there occurs a collinearity of the object, sense instrument, and the mind. That collinearity or alignment causes knowledge. That knowledge is called a citta. Let us take an actual example.
While we are in the garden, we would see a flower. The eye is the instrument which enables us to see. The mind is not engaged with another matter and is ready to receive the information about what is visible. So, the flower as the object, the eye as the instrument and the mind as the receiver are in contact at this time. The result is knowing that there is a flower. That knowing is called the citta. Sometimes it is called an eye-consciousness.
That is the simple story of a citta.
When there is no physical object in purview, a memory arises. Then the mind itself is the instrument, The mind itself is the receiver. There is collinearity. Knowledge of the memory arises. That knowledge is a citta.
In any of these six ways, knowledge arises. That knowledge is a citta. How many cittas keep arising in our minds every second?
You can see that there is no limit to that number. Can we manage all these cittas? Probably not possible. That is problem that we all have.
We are used to thinking and we say we have thoughts. For the time being, we consider a thought as a type of series of cittas. When we define a thought we will learn more about it.
Teaching techniques from techniques bank suggested:
113 Synthesis of a package of data
213 Thorough discussion
Writer: Rahubadde Sarath-Chandra
Content Editor:
Language Editor:
Teaching Techniques identified by:
Indexer and Compiler: RSC
5502 THE CONCEPT OF A CETASIKA (‘C’ IN CETASIKA IS PRNOUNCED AS ‘CH’ IN CHARITY)
When a citta arises, it is packed with many features. The Abhidhamma says that every citta is packed with many cetasikas and every cetasika is associated with one citta or another.
For example, I meet a person I do not like. Of course, as described before, a citta arises in my mind. A feature that citta is the existence of hatred. It can be strong or weak, but there is hatred.
What can we do with cittas and cetasikas?
It is extremely difficult to stop the arising of cittas, while the world is there, and while we cannot close our senses except the eyes.
However, we can manage the cetasikas if the mind is well-trained. This is where Buddhism comes in. Methods of training are given in discourses of the Buddha, in meditation, in the Dhamma, psychology and practice as presented in this website and perhaps in other sources.
Teaching techniques from techniques bank suggested:
113 Synthesis of a package of data
213 Thorough discussion
Writer: Rahubadde Sarath-Chandra
Content Editor:
Language Editor:
Teaching Techniques identified by:
Indexer and Compiler: RSC
5503 THE SEVEN UNIVERSAL CETASIKAS
There are seven cetasikas that are associated with every citta, according to Abhidhamma:
1 Contact (phassa)
2 Sensation (vedana)
3 Perception (sanna)
4 Volition (cetana)
5 One-pointedness (ekaggata)
6 Psychic life force (nama jivitindriya)
7 Attention (Manasikara)
At this stage, it is not intended to discuss these in detail. Brief explanations are given here.
Contact does not imply physical contact. Contact here means coming into purview with respect to one of the six senses.
Sensation means that a sense is generating feeling because of the contact. The feeling can be pleasant, unpleasant or neither.
In perception, the object is recognised in the context of similar objects that the mind had contacted before. Is this the same, or is it similar or different?
Volition is a further development. The mind decides to take some action in relation to the object. It may be get closer to it and get attached or it might be a rejection of the object or a neutral response.
One-pointedness implies putting the mind entirely on the object to the exclusion of all others.
Psychic force means the energy necessary to keep the thought going.
Attention has the usual meaning. Attention can be given to the object or withdrawn from the object.
Right from birth, these cetasikas operate but their energy levels may not be the same and keep fluctuating.
Teaching techniques from techniques bank suggested:
113 Synthesis of a package of data
213 Thorough discussion
Writer: Rahubadde Sarath-Chandra
Content Editor:
Language Editor:
Teaching Techniques identified by:
Indexer and Compiler: RSC
5511 THE SEVEN UNIVERSAL CETASIKAS-CONTACT
Contact in this context does not mean physical contact with an object. What is meant is like a mental engagement. This implies the involvement of the mind. Contact of an object whether physical or metal, requires the engagement of two senses. For example, the eyes and the mind when seeing. The ears and the mind working together results in hearing and so on.
The body sense is the fifth one. The mind sense is the sixth one, and in this case the mind plays two roles. The object which is a memory is one, the other is the mind functioning as a sense.
If there is no contact, then the other cetasikas or mental states do not follow. For example, when the eyes have turned the other way, there is no possibility of eye contact.
Our involvement with the world very much depends on this mental state of contact.
Teaching techniques from techniques bank suggested:
113 Synthesis of a package of data
213 Thorough discussion
Writer: Rahubadde Sarath-Chandra
Content Editor:
Language Editor:
Teaching Techniques identified by:
Indexer and Compiler: RSC
5512 THE SEVEN UNIVERSAL CETASIKAS-SENSATIONS
Sensations mean feelings experienced by the body or the mind. Feelings can be analysed into many categories, like 9 or 54 etc. Here we choose to get a basic idea and stay with the classification into three groups.
They are pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral. These words have their ordinary meanings. The teaching is that when there is a pleasant feeling on must know that it is pleasant. There is no suggestion to run away from it. Similarly, when there is an unpleasant feeling, we must know that it is unpleasant.
The most important things to recognise when there is a neutral feeling, neither pleasant or, unpleasant. Our problem is that we tend to ignore it. If you learn to recognise it, it becomes pleasant to experience it.
In the development of mindfulness and in the path to enlightenment, sensations become a vital issue. These considerations are treated later.
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5513 THE SEVEN UNIVERSAL CETASIKAS-PERCEPTIONS
This is an extremely valuable thing to understand. What is the difference between sensations and perceptions? Both occur in the mind, a perception following a sensation.
The sensation is generated in the mind due to the stimulus of an object. The perception is generated by the mind based on the comparison of the sensation with memories considered to be similar. As memories vary among individuals, each person’s perception will also be different.
Most of the discord among individuals is due to differing perceptions. Disputes, disagreements, arguments become strong when people hold strong perceptions.
Once this realised, we can aspire for a greater degree of harmony in society.
This leads to the conclusion that we never see things as they really are but see things as we want to see. So, constantly we get attached to or we repel people, things and situations based on our perceptions rather than real facts. We talk about politics, economics, ethnicity, race, colour, religions, art, music, movies, beauty, scents, and taste not on real facts but on our perceptions.
A simple illustration in ancient books is that of a gold coin as seen by a little child, an adult, and a chemist. The child sees as something to put in the mouth. The adult thinks of it as a means of becoming rich. A chemist looks at it as a metal alloyed with another metal.
An enlightened person sees things as they are. We can train ourselves to see reality as it is.
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5514 THE SEVEN UNIVERSAL CETASIKAS-VOLITION
The Pali word in cetana (‘c’ pronounced as ‘ch’ in change). It means willing. Volition precedes all actions like thinking, speaking and bodily actions. It generates the intention behind all actions. It is volition that brings in kamma. In other words, if one does something considered wrong, but accidentally, without volition. It does not create kamma. You could be killing insects while walking, but you have no volition to kill. So, no kamma is created. The will can drive a person towards morality or immorality.
Volition as a mental state can influence other mental states like the head carpenter who works as a carpenter in addition to being the head and controlling others.
The potential to create kamma is absent in the case of an arahant (enlightened person); the actions belong to a special class.
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5515 THE SEVEN UNIVERSAL CETASIKAS
-ONE-POINTEDNESS
It is possible to bring the mind on to one object, or to concentrate on the one object. This needs training and effort. When we speak of one object, it might not be physically one object. It can be a group of objects or a memory. It could be an activity. The skill is in defining an object, and in excluding all other objects.
Pre-Buddhist meditation was mostly in concentrating on one object, excluding others. The Buddha promoted putting the mind on an activity such as breathing and allowing the mind to move with the object. The concept of keeping the mind on one object for a moment is still there. But the mind does not need to be still.
One-pointedness does not lead to enlightenment but to other high mental attainments.
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5516 THE SEVEN UNIVERSAL CETASIKAS
-PSYCHIC LIFE
This means the energy that is required to support all other mental sates. It must not be assumed that it is another word for soul. There are arguments about the need for this mental state. The need to energise is obvious. The source of supply of that energy is not clear.
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5517 THE SEVEN UNIVERSAL CETASIKAS
-ATTENTION
This is translated as manasikara. Some writers have used the term awareness. The exact idea is not clear. The writer considers attention to be the mental state that helps the mind to turn away from an earlier object and contact the new object under purview.
The feature of attention is always there in the mind, but it must be energised when required.
When a person’s attention is weak, the mind fails to be aware of the object towards which the body has already turned and may turn towards many other objects unmindfully. No attention is paid to any particular object.
It is like the rudder of a boat, or like a turntable in an old camera. There seems to be a connection between attention and initial application in the next group of lesson
In the case of children, attention deficit is considered as a mental problem. Without attention, all the other mental states described above do not get energised.
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5518 THE COMMON 13 DOMINANT CETASIKAS
The seven mental stated above occurs in every citta that comes to our mind. That is why we call these seven as universal mental states. Note that the energy levels of each of these mental states can be different. For example, the attention of a person might be at a low energy level at a given time. This can be easily observed.
All other wholesome or unwholesome mental states such as kindness or anger will be associated with one or more of these seven and will depend wholesome or unwholesome mental states on the energy levels for their intensity. So, this way they can be dominant.
The next six mental states are also common in the sense that these can arise in association with all wholesome or unwholesome mental states and dominate them. There is one difference from the previous seven. These six are not present the whole time but come when required only. For example, joy arises only when suitable conditions prevail. Otherwise, joy is dormant.
Note the influence that these six can have on other mental sates. It can be crucial.
When you read the lessons on wholesome and unwholesome mental states later on, think of the possible dominance of the seven universal mental states, and the dominance of the six occasional mental states. These make big difference.
5519 THE SIX OPTIONAL COMMON CETASIKAS
In addition to the above seven universal mental states described above, there are six others that are not always present, but can be energised with volition. Otherwise, these remain dormant but available to every citta.
These are:
Initial application (vitakka)
Sustained application (vicara)
Decision (adhimokkha)
Effort (Viriya)
Joy (piti)
Intent to act (canda)
The are discussed in later lessons. The purpose here is to understand them as a group. When you turn your attention to an object, it is useful to be aware of the availability of these supporting mental states, to succeed in whatever you are trying to do.
For a student it is best to understand these in relation to studies. Suppose you have finished your sports or exercises for the day, and you are ready to resume studies. You would probably roam around which book or notes to start with. Once you have done that selection, you would look at it closer and in detail. That is sustained application. Then you would make a decision as to where exactly you start work. That is decision process. Just by sitting there nothing would have happened. Now you need to apply some effort to read or write whatever you want. That is the mental sate of effort. One you get going, you would feel a sense of satisfaction. That is joy. The joy would create more interest or an intent to go on with the action.
Notice that if you do not make a clear decision, there will be no progress. If you do not enjoy, your interest will reduce. When these happen you need to be aware and you have to energise for progress.
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212 Speaking one’s own experiences
113 Synthesis of a package of data
213 Thorough discussion
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5520 THE SIX OPTIONAL COMMON CETASIKAS-INITIAL APPLICATION
Imagine your mind is working on some matter right now. You have decided to turn your attention to a new matter. With the attention, the first thing that will happen is that the mind will move very close to the new matter, say reding a book. For a moment the mind will then circle around say turning the pages of the book.
When you are clear as to which page you want to open, you make decision about it. Then you would put in the effort to read. Hope you enjoy the reading the one page. You will then get interested to read further.
So, you have gone through the mental states of, initial application. Sustained application, decision. Joy and interest to act further.
The scriptures take the example of a roaming bee. The bee sees a particular flower, due to colour or smell or both. That is turning attention to the flower. Then it will land on a petal. This is like initial application. Then it will make a few circles inside the flower. This sustained application. Then it decides to go right inside for honey. This is decision. It makes an effort to take as much honey, as possible making effort. It enjoys the first sip. This is joy. It gets interested in seeking more honey.
When you understand these steps, the task is performed more effectively.
There are two interesting things that can happen with initial application. Firstly, the mind might carry mental states that prevailed in the thought before, into the new object. An example is a husband who was angry in the office, meets his wife at home, and casts that anger on the innocent woman. Greed and sadness also can get carried to new objects.
Secondly, if the initial application does not lead to sustained application, the mind might slip away. Some children get caught in this trap.
Teaching techniques from techniques bank suggested:
212 Speaking about own experience
113 Synthesis of a package of data
213 Thorough discussion
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5521 THE SIX OPTIONAL COMMON CETASIKAS-SUSTAINED APPLICATION
First the mind lands on or near the object you want. That is initial application. Then the mind roams around the object to make sure that it is correct object. That roaming is the sustained application. Many a time we spend time in sustained application, and it is a good thing. It prevents us from falling into traps, trying to rush.
It is an in-built protection.
It helps to get over ideas of doubt about the new object. If sustained application is too short, there is a possibility of doubts arising and abandoning the new object. This can be noticed in the case of students who have the nature of rushing.
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212 Speaking about own experience
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5522 THE SIX OPTIONAL COMMON CETASIKAS-DECISION
This mental state causes many problems in life as it is not adequately developed in a lot of people. If you are unable to make decisions or if you always delay making decisions, it is very difficult to look after a family. Look after your health, look after your assistants, or manage anything worthwhile.
A sign of absence of this mental state is dilly-dallying and wasting time thereby making things worse. A good example is looking for garments. Some people can buy things they want in minutes while others wait for the next day. While you wait for tomorrow, the article could be snatched by another person. Lack of decision ability brings suffering and complaining.
The mental states of doubt and fear inhibit decision making. Every moment we are faced with choices. Some may go wrong, but that does not matter. It will always happen that way. People who are weak in decision making need to learn from others.
The scriptures say that like bee, one needs to say, ‘this is the one I need’ and finish a transaction. This must be done in a reasonable time. When you delay decisions, you cannot stay steady because you get pushed everywhere.
Excessive greed might be one reason why some people are unable to make decisions reasonably quickly.
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5523 THE SIX OPTIONAL COMMON CETASIKAS-EFFORT
In the practice of Buddhism, there is no place for lethargy, idleness and inertia. One needs to apply reasonable effort, to move on in the path to spiritual progress. It is obvious that effort is essential even for worldly progress. Effort as a mental state, needs to summoned, aroused or called in when required.
This is true in studies, at work, in the family or in the community. In the 37 factors of enlightenment, in each of the seven groupings, effort is an essential element.
It is convenient to be doing nothing, but the consequences are hard to bear. Effort needs energy, it also functions as a force. Continuity of effort is necessary for sustenance of effort. Otherwise, energy is wasted. Effort is necessary for starting, and for sustaining and enhancing of progress. When aeroplanes were first made, they would jump up into the air, but would fall immediately. Effort was there but it was not sustained.
Effort must not be applied too strenuously but must be reasonable. Buddha spoke of a string instrument in music; if the string is loose, no music comes out. If the string is too tight again it will not work as intend. The right balance must be sought. A marathon runner who runs too fast at the beginning, will not have the energy to finish well.
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5524 THE SIX OPTIONAL COMMON CETASIKAS-JOY
This mental state which can ne aroused when needed is usually underrated. Delight and zest are alternative words.
Many office workers and factory workers, are not happy to go for work but would rather go for something else. Hence there is no motivation., can be enjoyed. If the management succeeds in creating an atmosphere of joy at work, that can create an interest to work.
In spiritual activities too, the experience of a little success ought to be quietly enjoyed. That joy helps to progress on the path. That joy is an inner experience and may not involve making noises and dancing around.
Meditation is a good example. People sometimes struggle to attain success in breathing meditation. When the signs of success appear it is useful to notice that and enjoy.
Teaching techniques from techniques bank suggested:
211 Speaking about own experience
213 Thorough discussions
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5525 THE SIX OPTIONAL COMMON CETASIKAS-INTENT TO ACT OR ELECTION
The joy attained in seeing the signs of success, if taken too far, might lead to failure. In a desert if a traveller saw something like a tree, it is good to enjoy. If he stopped there to throw a party, by morning the tree may have disappeared. It is necessary to summon intent to act as soon as possible. Then you can move on until the tree is reached. Searching for water near the tree can now begin.
Electing to act must not be treated as an attachment leading to sorrow. If you elect to follow a spiritual path, it is done with a wholesome intent. Once the goal is achieved, the intent to struggle is thrown aside. You need a boat to cross a rive, and you leave it there once you have gone to the other side.
Teaching techniques from techniques bank suggested:
211 Speaking about own experience
213 Thorough discussions
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5600 THE FOURTEEN UNWHOLESOME CETASIKAS
-IN ABHIDHAMMA
(Lessons 5600 to 5614 have been gratefully extracted from Basic Buddhist Psychology-the building blocks by Rahubadde Sarath-Chandra. This book may also be available in this website)
Our thoughts, words, and deeds, when these are of an evil nature, are rooted in ignorance, greed or hatred or all kinds of combinations of these as well as their derivatives, in varying proportions. When our thoughts words and deeds are good, these are rooted in the opposites, namely non-greed, non-hatred and non-ignorance, or combinations of these or their derivatives, in varying proportions.
In tangible terms, we are trying to manage our thoughts, words, and deeds. To the extent we succeed we stay progressing on the noble eight-fold path recommended by the Buddha. When we fail, either we stray in diverse directions or go backwards or downwards. Failure in studies, family, community, profession, business or in employment is also very likely.
Superficially, these roots seem to be obvious. However, there are many details to learn and to test in day-to-day practice.
We learnt about two sets of mental states before, a set of seven and a set of six as shown in diagram (2) in chapter 2 of the original book and also in lessons 5503 to 5524 in this lesson bank. Of the total of 52 mental states that are under consideration, we now consider the fourteen unwholesome ones. These can be associated with the mind, or better stated, our consciousness (citta). Consciousness is the essential core of the mind. The first seven mental states always exist in association with consciousness and the next six arise in given situations.
Any of the 14 mental states now considered, or a combination of some of them can exist in association with any of the first thirteen mental states. These fourteen are in the lower half of set 3, diagram (2) in chapter 2 of the original book.
Managing our thoughts, words and deeds mainly implies the management of mental states. If these are impure then the consciousness becomes impure. Consciousness (citta) becomes impure or unwholesome due to unwholesome mental states.
The 14 unwholesome mental states considered in this set of lessons are listed below.
Mental States Cetasika
1 Delusion or ignorance (F3) Moha
2 Shamelessness (in committing wrongs) Ahirikaü
3 Fearlessness (or lack of concern as to consequences) Anottappaü
4 Restlessness Uddhaccha
5 Attachment or greed (F1) Lobha
6 Misbelief (holding on to wrong views) (Micchā) Ditthi
7 Conceit Māna
8 Hatred (F2) Dosa
9 Jealousy Issā
10 Avarice Macchariya
11 Worry Kukkucca
12 Sloth Thãna
13 Torpor Middha
14 Doubt Vicikicchā
The codes in brackets F1, F2, and F3 indicate that these correspond to the three major roots of evil stated in traditional order.
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5601 THE FOURTEEN UNWHOLESOME CETASIKAS
-1 DELUSION
Items marked as F1, f2 and f3 namely, greed, hatred and elusion are treated as the three roots of all unwholesomeness. Upon close examination we can see that the other eleven evil mental states are combinations of two or more of the fundamental roots. In many of these delusion or ignorance is a factor. Ultimately it boils down to the fact that we commit evil because of our ignorance, or our inability to see things as they are. Something clouds our vision, and that is ignorance. A person becomes a Buddha when ignorance ends. and total wisdom arises. The Pāli word Buddha in one way means wisdom. It is a key word in Buddhism. Later we shall learn that wisdom is not intelligence or knowledge per se.
So, in one way, we can say that there is only one root of all trouble and that is delusion. After all, greed, and hatred both are generated as a result of delusion.
These mental states are ugly, immoral, and unskilful and lead us to suffer, fail and become unhappy, anxious, and agitated in whatever we do.
One point must be borne in mind. The English words used may not be exact translations of the Pāli terms. The common meanings attributed to some of these words must be kept aside until the correct meanings are understood with more reflection and experience.
Delusion is the first of the 14 unwholesome mental states. When there is delusion, the mind cannot see properly. It is like a cloud of dust inhibiting the eyes. It may be associated with stupidity, ignorance, lack of knowledge, lack of intelligence and so on. The cloud may be attachment to something, or repulsion of something, that occur commonly
The belief that there is a soul within me, that it is indestructible, permanent, substantial, and capable of migrating from one place to another, is a result of delusion. This theme is discussed elsewhere.
The characteristic of delusion is the inability to see things as they are, and the inability to see within oneself.
The deluded person treats events, beings, and things as permanent. Such a person keeps seeking happiness in external things, beings, and events. Delusion promotes the build-up of more delusion, until the person gets some help or meets a trigger, enabling the person to see things better. Note that we are not referring to seeing in a physical sense. We are talking about the ability of the mind to understand things correctly.
Such a person seeks satisfaction where dissatisfaction is inherent. Things having no value are seen as valuable. When he is unhappy, he does not know why he is unhappy; even when he knows, he cannot see the way out. Some even do not believe that there could be a way out of unsatisfactoriness.
The deluded person fails to effectively manage the six senses and tends to give the wrong responses to the stimuli from the external world and the internal world. All the other unwholesome mental states are promoted. In short, thoughts, words and deeds tend to be ineffective or even destructive. That quality brings unhappiness.
Teaching techniques from techniques bank suggested:
213 Thorough discussions
212 Speaking about own experience
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5602 THE FOURTEEN UNWHOLESOME CETASIKAS
-2 SHAMELESSNESS
Shamelessness has a deeper and different meaning to what is commonly understood. The root shame has little to do with blushing or being shy. Moral shame is an attitude of mind that makes one, recoil from unskilful actions. It can be compared with the recoil of the feathers of a bird when approaching a fire or a man moving away to avoid dirt on the footpath. It is a sort of disgust that keeps a person away from wrongful or stupid behaviour. It is the advance feeling that an imminent action is inappropriate.
Moral shame is a cultivated, built-in mental mechanism to prevent undue decadence. Shamelessness is the absence of that kind of moral shame.
According to the Buddha, a person who has moral shame is his own master. The author holds the opinion that shame is buttressed by pride, although pride too is considered as an unwholesome mental state. Inquiries have been made to check whether this has been supported in the original teachings or in the commentaries. This idea appears to be correct. The fact that I use my sense of pride to build the protective fence of shame does not mean that I have to live with pride for ever. At the opportune moment, pride can be dealt with as a separate matter.
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213 Thorough discussions
212 Speaking about own experience
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5603 THE FOURTEEN UNWHOLESOME CETASIKAS
-3 FEARLESSNESS
In connection with the term Fearlessness, fear has a meaning different from the ordinary meaning. One need not be fearful as such. Fear of God, or the unknown is not what is meant here. A better modern comparable usage is conscience. A person having a conscience will refrain from wrongful actions like destruction of property and interfering in the liberty of others. Moral fear as meant here relates to the surrounding. We are concerned about consequences.
We refuse to touch a hot iron rod because we are fearsome, and we know what it entails. We refuse to join in a violent riot. It is that kind of fear not to do foolish things in society or in the natural surroundings. Here we are aware and concerned about the consequences. The consequences include subsequent self-reproach.
According to the Buddha, a person who has moral fear treats the well-gone ones (such as the Buddha) as the master, the wise. So, he thinks, ‘let not the wise consider me blameworthy’. This concept is stated by the Buddha in the discourse on loving kindness, and in other teachings. We create a standard for wise behaviour.
In one way shame and fear are connected. The first arises from a culture within the mind and the second arises from an understanding of the environment as given and as it operates.
In a social sense it is impossible to live in a society that has no respect for moral shame and moral fear. If people do have these qualities, police and the courts may well have much less to do.
The absence of moral fear is called fearlessness in this context.
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213 Thorough discussions
212 Speaking about own experience
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5604 THE FOURTEEN UNWHOLESOME CETASIKAS
-4 RESTLESSNESS
Restlessness is a disturbed state of mind. In this state the mind is not collected and cannot dwell on anything in particular. So, although one might like to do this or that seeking happiness, no coherent move is possible. The mind keeps moving among so many different things every moment, and it cannot deal with any single thing adequately. Frustration is the result. In frustration, some impulsive, thoughtless action might be committed.
When one throws a stone onto a heap of ash, the ash flies all over; a restless mind is similar. In that state, there is no chance for success and happiness.
According to Buddhist psychology, restlessness relates essentially to the future as contrasted with worry (considered later) that relates to the past. In a state of restlessness, I try to decide to do something, then another, then yet another and so on, and end up doing nothing. So, I am trying to deal with the future, with no avail. A sudden inner compulsion might put me in some unexpected difficulty. Even if it does not do so, the restless mind has low productivity; it is wasting energy in moving around. At a later time, it can also result in worry. That type of worry relates to the failure to achieve whatever was to be achieved. The worry may also relate to any negative results that may have been caused by restlessness.
The equation of restlessness to worry in western psychology appears to stem from the fact that one type of restlessness is very similar to worry in Buddhist psychology, but in the general case, the two mental states are quite different. This could be an area for further research in psychology.
Diagram (7) illustrates the fast, repeated, back and forth movement of consciousness between one or more future objects, and any current situation or object, resulting in restlessness.
It is interesting that shamelessness, fearlessness, and restlessness go with other unwholesome mental states. We should check this matter in real situations. Greed is a useful example to study in association with shamelessness, fearlessness, and restlessness. If I crave for some object and I am not sure exactly how to get it, I will probably think of all types of methods to get the object. As I examine each method, especially in a hurry, I would invariably see one or more defects in the methods which I cannot correct as quickly as I wish. That prompts me to look for alternative methods of getting the object. After a series of such mental sprints, I tend to become restless.
Still my craving drives me. Then I might resort to some form of shameful behaviour (like hiding in a sewer for an hour) hoping that I will get close to the object. This is shameless conduct.
Then if I come out and grab the object without the permission of the owner, I am committing the act of stealing. In doing so I am fearless. I would not care whether I will get caught and exposed, or even whether the police will catch me and throw me in jail.
Greed drove me to restlessness, shamelessness, and fearlessness and by now I might have lost my defences and be deep in trouble.
Diagram7
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FUTURE OBJECTS |
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CONSCIOUSNESS CURRENT SITUATION |
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THE RESTLESS MIND REACHING FOR TOO MANY OBJECTS IN THE FUTURE |
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5605 THE FOURTEEN UNWHOLESOME CETASIKAS
-5 GREED
The meanings of greed and attachment are fairly clear. Greed is more a question of attitude than one of fact. A hungry man may need food. A well-fed man may keep eating sweet chocolates. The second is clearly suffering from greed and attachment.
Greed is one of the three roots of all other unwholesome mental states. The other two roots of unwholesome actions are hatred and delusion as mentioned before.
The main characteristic of greed is getting attached to the object of greed, or grasping the object. Grasping prompts, the person to seek after the object to the point of ownership and even to the point of exclusive ownership. The thoughts, words and actions arising in this regard tend to be unwholesome. These actions cause new stimuli from the environment to impact on the mind and the mind to impact on the environment accordingly. The person’s behaviour may become a problem to society, and a problem to oneself.
If the person gets the object, he is greedy for, will the greed cease? In exceptional cases it might reduce, but most often it will not. He will not be happy about some aspects of the object, or the object may have changed unexpectedly. A more desirable object might appear. Then greed for something else sets in. The person could change and then he will direct his greed to something else. Nothing is really and permanently satisfying, because things change, we change and our environment changes. Hence greed continues as an attitude of mind until tamed through understanding and practice.
Moreover, as nothing is permanent, the loss of the object or a major change in it causes grief and anger. These in turn bring unhappiness. Then other pursuits of greed set in and again and again we get thrown about by the force of greed.
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213 Thorough discussions
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5606 THE FOURTEEN UNWHOLESOME CETASIKAS
-6 MISBELIEF
Misbelief or wrong view is another term that needs careful consideration in the context of unwholesome mental states. The Pāli term ‘ditthi’ means a view, and ‘miccā’ signifies being wrong.
The main characteristic of wrong view is that there is misdirection of effort and waste of resources. A mind holding on to a wrong view applies effort in the wrong way and therefore connected thoughts, words and deeds all go wrong. That warps the entire behaviour of the person also goes wrong. Wrong view may apply to any object, physical or mental.
The main consequence of wrong view is more and more suffering. Continued wrong view makes it more and more difficult to seek a correction.
Buddhist psychology goes further. If I hold on to a view that ‘this indeed is the truth, the right way and so on, and everything else is definitely false’, that itself is a wrong view. For example, to hold a strong view that Buddhism is the only right religion goes against this teaching. This does not preclude one from holding a working view or opinion to study and practice Buddhism to the extent one has grasped its teachings and has experienced corresponding benefits. In this situation a person can comfortably listen to criticisms, accept suggestions, and question the validity of teachings keeping an open mind all the time. A working view is flexible and easy to correct. It is indeed useful and therefore necessary for achieving results.
Blind belief and fanatical belief are clearly classified as wrong views, whatever the belief. Even if a view is supposed to be objectively correct, there is no need to blindly believe it. Fanaticism is obviously a major, dangerous illness. There is plenty of evidence in the modern world regarding the dangers emanating from strong views often based on blind belief devoid of due investigation.
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5607 THE FOURTEEN UNWHOLESOME CETASIKAS
-7 CONCEIPT
Conceit is the mental state that creates the feeling that one is superior, and one is right, and only one is superior or right. Everyone else is inferior and wrong. In this condition only I know the truth and nobody else does.
False pride (māna) is also connected to this idea of conceit. Conceit arises mainly from delusion, ignorance, or stupidity. In Pāli the term ‘Māna’ is connected to measuring. A conceited person measures himself against others and finds him-self always superior.
Although it is possible for one to be factually superior regarding one thing, conceit makes the person extend that measure to all or most things, which is meaningless in real life. Thus, the conceited person looks a fool in the eyes of society.
The main characteristic of conceit is looking down on others. As this idea is obviously foolish in that one cannot be superior in all respects, the person remains deluded. His progress is inhibited.
A consequence of conceit is the inability to relate well to others and to live in harmony, or work in a team. Another consequence is the suffering caused when the person realises his true value in real situations. It becomes even worse when the person observes that he is looked upon as a fool and lowly, whereas he was given to the thought that he was great all the while.
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5608 THE FOURTEEN UNWHOLESOME CETASIKAS
-8 HATRED
Hatred is the mental state that causes repulsion of objects. It is the opposite of attraction. Words such as dislike have a similar meaning. Anger and revenge are also connected. Hatred, like greed, is one of the three roots of unwholesome mental states. Delusion considered at the start of this chapter is the third one.
In one way hatred of one thing is equivalent to greed for the opposite. These are like the two faces of a coin. Both are caused by delusion. So, the key to all unwholesome mental states can be said to be delusion.
The main characteristic of hatred is getting attached to rejection of the object of hatred, or even trying to destroy it. This tendency prompts the person to seek after ways and means of destruction, not only of the object, but also anyone obstructing his path.
The thoughts, words and actions arising in this regard tend to be unwholesome. These actions cause new stimuli from the environment to impact on the mind and the mind to impact on the environment. The person’s behaviour may become a problem to society, and a problem to oneself.
Even after the object is discarded, it may well return after some time. An example is a disliked family member returning home after a long absence. This causes added grief, resentment, and anger. Then further complications follow. The hatred initially generated regarding one object may now spread to more and more objects, and the mind of the person may eventually become an epitome of hatred, coloured by it, and even intoxicated by hatred. It can grow to the level of insanity. It is not necessary to visit a prison to see this type of person. We can observe hatred arising in the minds of people in so many day-to-day situations. More particularly, we can clearly observe it within our own minds, if only we care to introspectively look at ourselves.
Hatred does not imply always having murderous thoughts about a person. An unguarded mind can develop hateful or repulsive thoughts about the most mundane and baseless things, such as hatred of certain colours, or hatred about the shape of a car, or hatred about a certain item of food, or even the brand of a mobile phone. A list such as this, which is essentially a summary of how the environment impacts upon our minds, is practically endless.
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5609 THE FOURTEEN UNWHOLESOME CETASIKAS
-9 JEALOUSY
In jealousy, there is an element of hatred as well as of delusion. Jealousy implies a bad feeling at the sight of the business success, prosperity, good health, academic success, education, power, position, appearance, reputation, popularity etc. of another person. That is the element of hatred. The jealous mind fails to see that it suffers owing to the jealousy. This is delusion. Such a mind cannot see that jealousy is unprofitable. That is why we treat jealousy as a combination of hatred and delusion.
The main characteristic of jealousy is that it burns the mind entertaining the jealousy. Hence jealousy is self-destructive.
A consequence of jealousy is that the mind becomes sick and ineffective. It keeps seeking a situation that may never eventuate. It keeps burning not like a fire but as embers do for a long time.
Some of us might think that we do not have jealousy, but there is every possibility that jealousy exists and cannot be observed because it is subtle. Behaviour resulting from subtle jealousy is not necessarily subtle; it could well be very objectionable. It might not be noticed, as it is not frequent.
When there is gross jealousy, initial suffering is in the mind and body of the person who is jealous, but definitely not in the other person. Hence, one is foolishly hurting oneself, and not the person against whom the jealousy is directed.
However, other resulting mental states like extreme hatred might cause damage to the victim eventually.
Jealousy is the opposite of sympathetic joy (muditā).
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5610 THE FOURTEEN UNWHOLESOME CETASIKAS
-10 AVARICE
Avarice makes one feel that whatever possessions one has must only be for oneself. It is a miserly feeling. Avarice prompts the owner to hide his possessions, lest someone might ask for a little share. Possessions here can imply intangible, non-physical possessions such as knowledge. In hiding possessions, he loses the chance to enjoy what he has. As a result he suffers.
We can see that hatred is associated with avarice. It is interesting that the opposite state of greed is also present in avarice. I hate to see another enjoying what I have, so I must keep things hidden. The fact that I fail to observe my own suffering due to my avarice indicates delusion or stupidity.
Hence, here we have greed, aversion and delusion all combined. Note that each of these applies in its own field, or on different objects or on different aspects of the same object.
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5611 THE FOURTEEN UNWHOLESOME CETASIKAS
-11 WORRY
The mental state of worry needs some explanation. It could be unique to Buddhist psychology as it is clearly distinguished from restlessness. Worry occurs when something has gone amiss, and I keep brooding over it, well knowing that I cannot correct it, because it is in the past. Because I cannot correct it, I foolishly choose to keep worrying about it. Worry relates to past experiences as opposite to restlessness which relates to events in the future. The similarity between worry and restlessness stems from the fact that in each case the mind keeps darting back and forth with respect to time. This position appears to be unique to Buddhist psychology and might also explain the divergence from western psychology regarding the differentiation between worry and restlessness.
One can argue that it is necessary to review past activities in the hope of improving. There is no problem with that. In that case one looks at the facts of a past event, summons ideas and makes decisions. Worry implies running in the same groove, or re-living the experience wondering what happened, with little or no effort to assess things and to come to any useful conclusions.
Worry can result from both commissions and omissions. It might relate to evil done or good not done. Why did I do that? Why didn’t I do that? There are many common cases of worry. Having done something wrong, one keeps thinking that there would have been something right about it. One might never discover that ‘something’ and the worry will continue. In the opposite way, one may have done something right, and yet keep brooding whether any little thing might have gone wrong. That too is worry. The worry might arise from a concern for the law, rules, customs, ethics, or morality or simply because one’s own moral standards.
Having done evil, one could be looking in the haystack for justification for the evil. Generally, we do not want to admit our wrongs, definitely not in public, but even within the secrecy of our minds. This is quite common. Justifying the use of inappropriate or hurtful words following a heated argument is an example of this.
Diagram 8
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THE WORRIED MIND BROODS ON A PAST OBJECT |
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CURRENT CONSCIOUSNESS |
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AN OBJECT IN MEMORY |
Sometimes I might look for someone else who might have prompted me to make my mistake. If there is no such person, I will look for something in the environment on which I can cast the blame for the evil I committed. There is an element of hatred in this type of worry. Diagram (8) illustrates the basic idea of worry.
Having done a good deed, one could be looking for a tinge of evil that other people could have noticed. This may arise in the case of persons who try to claim more than what they really have in terms of morality, maybe unconsciously. According to Venerable Nārada of Sri Lanka, these two similar cases are mentioned in the ancient book Dhammasangani. The last mentioned case is connected to delusion.
Either of these can cause a merry-go-round of worry. It is hard to get out of it.
Fidgeting, grieving, un-ending remorse of conscience, repentance, over-scrupulousness and, mental sacrificing are all connected to worry.
It is interesting that some religions demand repentance from adherents. According to Buddhist psychology, it could be argued that they are forcing people through a downward spiral. Some people might never return to sanity after a prolonged period of repentance. What we need is not repentance for what we might have done in the past, but a firm determination as to what exactly we should do in the future. That is more reasonable and meaningful. It is good for the individual and is good for society.
In the criminal courts, judges sometimes say that the accused showed no remorse and that this calls for a higher level of punishment. If I have done some evil act, when I am asked about it, I have a duty to show remorse out of respect for the court and for the victims of my action. That is only an acknowledgement of regret, a way of saying sorry. The matter should end there. I must get out of the remorse and decide to do better in the future. Clinging on to the state of remorse amounts to worry and is unwholesome.
Grieving over the loss of a dear one causes long-term worry. Here there is no act or omission; it is only a happening beyond one’s control. Again, right understanding of death, and sensible decisions for the future of those living, would help reduce worry. The author has added this case; it has not been seen in the books. This case could be inappropriate under the strict meaning of worry. Technically this case could better be covered under delusion, or attachment, or both.
Venerable K. Sri Dhammananda in his book ‘How to Live Without Fear and Worry’9 deals with the problem of worry in a much broader sense, in a most interesting and realistic way consonant with the modern world. It is a novel form of presentation where Buddhist psychology is concerned.
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5612 THE FOURTEEN UNWHOLESOME CETASIKAS
-12 SLOTH
Sloth and torpor also need some explanation. Sloth is the inability to reach out due to shrinking. Consciousness or citta shrinks in this situation. When it is shrunk it cannot be adapted to suit new requirements. It is too hard. To cite a modern example, when lightning strikes a large tree, electricity distribution authorities say that the burnt trunk gets shrunk and becomes hard. In fact, it becomes difficult to cut with an electric saw. So, there is shrinking, hardness and loss of adaptability. In the case of the mind, progress is then limited. We can say that the mind gripped by sloth is sick; it is unable to do many things that it did before. The words adhering, cohering, clinging, stickiness, stiffening, rigidity, and stolidity etc. have been used in this connection. The author prefers the word combination shrunk-hard.
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213 Thorough discussions
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5613 THE FOURTEEN UNWHOLESOME CETASIKAS
-13 TORPOR
Torpor is different. It is a kind of inertia that makes the mind incapable and inactive. It is a morbid state. All other mental states get sick because of torpor. Other words used in this connection are indisposition, unwieldiness of sense, shrouding, enveloping, cocooning, barricading within, sleeping, drowsiness and so on. The author prefers the word inertia, a word easily understood in applied mathematics.
When the mind is in a state of torpor, either it is still and is refusing to move at all or it is running with some activity but is refusing to adjust its activity level to suit a new situation. A person who keeps reading a newspaper without having lunch is in a state of mental inertia in that he is unable to adjust or modulate his current activity for another necessity. He is cocooning in a newspaper although he is active.
Sloth and torpor operate together very often, and the victim would most probably stay in one place, possibly sleeping. We are not interested in sleeping in the physical sense as such but only in the mental state akin to sleeping.
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213 Thorough discussions
212 Speaking about own experience
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5614 THE FOURTEEN UNWHOLESOME CETASIKAS
-14 DOUBT
Doubt needs some discussion. This is the inability to choose a set out of a larger set, or to select one out of several, or to select one in preference to another and so results in indecision. It is a general mental state.
Doubting any aspect of the Buddha, Dhamma or Sangha is not the meaning of doubt as a mental state. It may be one possible case in which doubt arises. Doubt in general means the inability to decide.
One can argue that it is necessary to entertain doubt in many situations, as it is inadvisable to rush to conclusions. There is no problem with that. The problem arises if doubting is about the only thing one does, and there is no attempt at collecting and collating facts and analysing the facts aiming at problem solving.
That type of perennial doubt obviously leads to restlessness and strangely to sloth and torpor at some stage. When failure is apparent one also starts worrying. Doubt can cut off success and happiness whenever these are present themselves.
Much learning of the dhamma, and right thought and understanding can help reduce doubt. Associating with good and noble friends and profitable discussion with an open mind can help to reduce the tendency to be obsessed with doubt.
The overall effect of unwholesome mental states needs to be reviewed at this stage.
There are two implications to look at. The first is that as consciousness gets cleaner, with reduction of unwholesome mental states, we become more and more successful in worldly life, in family, community and employment or business or whatever we do. That itself is one achievement. However, there is no guarantee that we can attain enlightenment or any other higher spiritual level. We are then performing merit, and the merit helps us to live reasonably safely and happily in this and future births. So, we linger on in the cycle of births and deaths (saüsāra), collecting more and more merit and avoiding demerits.
The second implication is that we lay a platform from which we can attempt to secure an end to the cycle of births, and that is to attain enlightenment. Apart from merit making, we can be more skilful, and less unskilful in our thoughts, words, and deeds. It is a question of degree to begin with, and later it becomes a major qualitative change. That quantum leap is possible with higher levels of right understanding.
Right understanding can be developed with the help of sustained mindfulness. This is further discussed in Dhamma and Lessons in Practice.
5516 to 5999 are held in reserve
The following topics are under consideration
1 The 25 wholesome mental states in Abhidhamma
2 Mentalities behind the 10 unwholesome actions in discourses
3 The nine taints in the mind in Abhidhamma; how these differ
4 Methods of cleaning the nine taints in the mind-general
5 Methods of cleaning the mind from Sabbasava Sutta
6 Mentalities behind the ten wholesome actions
7 The behaviour of the mind in relation to the 37 factors of enlightenment
8 Cittta in higher spiritual attainments
9 Seeing the realities (Yatha Bhuta Gnana)
10 Insight meditation
11 the four Absorptions (Jhana) in the two methods
12 Practice of Vipassana
13 The way to enlightenment
THE END OF THE LESSON BANK IN PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY